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Abbreviated Background
Afghanistan Afghanistan won its independence from notional British control in 1919. Turbulence over 40 years – a 1973 coup followed by a Soviet invasion, civil wars, Taliban control, and US-led military action – is finally giving way to stability and some semblance of peace.
Akrotiri Following Cyprus’ independence in 1960, the UK retained full sovereignty over two areas of the island, Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The southernmost and smallest of these is the Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area.
Albania Albania won its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The legacy of half a century of communist rule (1944 to the early 1990s) has made transition to democracy difficult; it remains one of the poorest countries in Europe.
Algeria Algeria won its independence from France in 1962. A violent Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) insurgency through most of the 1990s was finally defeated, but the country continues to face a host of longstanding socioeconomic problems.
American Samoa Settled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was not reached by European explorers until the 18th century. International rivalries in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899 treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.
Andorra For 715 years Andorrans lived under a unique co-principality, ruled by French and Spanish leaders. In 1993, this system was modified, with the titular heads of state retained but the government transformed into a parliamentary democracy.
Angola The country continues to rebuild following more than a quarter century of civil war that began after independence from Portugal in 1975. Up to 1.5 million people may have died – and 4 million displaced – in the fighting.
Anguilla In the early 19th century, the UK incorporated Anguilla into a single British dependency along with Saint Kitts and Nevis. After several failed attempts at separation, Anguilla became a separate British dependency in 1980.
Antarctica Not until 1840 was it determined that Antarctica was a continent. Following World War II, the continent experienced an upsurge in scientific research. Seven countries have made territorial claims, but not all states recognize them.
Antigua and Barbuda An English colony set up in 1667 succeeded earlier Spanish and French settlements. Slavery, established to run the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands became independent from the UK in 1981.
Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five oceans. The Northwest Passage (US and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two important seasonal waterways. Should warming climate patterns continue, decreasing polar ice will allow for expanded future navigation.
Argentina Argentina won its independence from Spain In 1816. A tumultuous 20th century saw alternating periods of conflict between civilian and military factions. Democracy returned in 1983 and has persisted despite a 2001-02 economic crisis and other challenges.
Armenia Armenia in the early 4th century became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity. Subsequently, it came under the sway of various empires. A short-lived period of independence (1918-20) was followed by incorporation into the Soviet Union; renewed independence came in 1991.
Aruba Discovered by Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired by the Dutch in 1636; the island became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1986. Aruba's economy experienced a tourism boom in the late 20th century.
Ashmore and Cartier Islands Australian administration of these uninhabited islands began in 1933. Ashmore Reef, which supports a diverse avian and marine habitat, became a National Nature Reserve in 1983. Cartier Island, a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceans. The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important strategic access waterways.
Australia Britain created six colonies on the continent in the late 18th and 19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The new country developed rapidly and in recent decades has become an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.
Austria Austria emerged from the defeated Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I. Annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, the country was occupied by the victorious Allies for a decade (1945-1955). A prosperous, democratic country, Austria joined the EU in 1995.
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan was briefly independent from the Russian Empire (1918-1920); it was subsequently incorporated into the Soviet Union until 1991. Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh, a territory it lost to Armenia in the early 1990s.
Bahamas, The British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands became a colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas has prospered through tourism, international banking, and investment management.
Bahrain The Al-Khalifa family entered into treaties with the UK during the 19th century that made Bahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained its independence in 1971. Bahrain successfully diversified its economy in the late 20th century following a decline in oil production.
Bangladesh Bengal became part of British India in the 18th century. In 1947, primarily Muslim east Bengal became East Pakistan, while the Hindu west joined India. East Pakistan won independence as Bangladesh in 1971. Poor and overpopulated, the country has made great progress in food security in recent decades.
Barbados First settled by the British in 1627, the island’s economy was heavily dependent on sugar production through most of the 19th and 20th centuries. Independence from the UK came in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
Belarus After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Government restrictions on speech, the press, peaceful assembly, and religion remain in place under authoritarian President LUKASHENKO.
Belgium Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; it was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The country prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Brussels, the capital, is home to numerous international organizations.
Belize Belize was the site of several Maya city-states in the first millennium A.D. The region was disputed by the British and Spanish in the 17th and 18th centuries before becoming the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Independence came in 1981. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy.
Benin Benin was the site of Dahomey, a West African kingdom that for almost 300 years was a regional power, largely based on its slave trade. France conquered the kingdom by 1894. French Dahomey achieved independence in 1960 and changed its name to the Republic of Benin in 1975.
Bermuda Shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia first settled Bermuda in 1609. Vacationing to the island from North America developed in Victorian times. International business and finance have overtaken tourism in the island's economy. A referendum on independence from the UK failed in 1995.
Bhutan British influence in the region grew in the 19th century; a monarchy was set up in 1907. A 1910 treaty allowed Britain to guide Bhutan’s foreign (but not internal) affairs; India assumed this role in 1949. In 2008, the king introduced major democratic reforms including a constitution and an elected parliament.
Bolivia Bolivia broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups. Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and illegal drug production.
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence from the former Yugoslavia in 1992 was followed by a three-year ethnic war that resulted in a two-government structure - one central but highly limited, the other comprised of two autonomous entities roughly equal in size: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska (RS). The Federation and RS governments oversee most government functions.
Botswana Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. More than four decades of uninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, and significant capital investment have created one of the most stable economies in Africa.
Bouvet Island In 1928, the UK waived its claim to this Antarctic island - the most remote island on Earth - in favor of Norway. In 1971, Norway designated Bouvet Island and the adjacent territorial waters a nature reserve and since 1977 has conducted research on the fur seals and penguins inhabiting the island.
Brazil Brazil gained its independence from Portugal in 1822. As the largest and most populous country in South America, it continues to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and the development of its resource-rich interior. Brazil is today South America's top economic power and a regional leader.
British Indian Ocean Territory The British Indian Ocean Territory consists of six main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The largest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a joint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands are uninhabited.
British Virgin Islands The English annexed the islands from the Dutch in 1672. The islands were part of the British colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they were granted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
Brunei In 1888, Brunei - the remnant of a Bruneian Empire (15-17th centuries) - became a British protectorate; independence was achieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over six centuries. Brunei’s extensive petroleum and natural gas fields are the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in Asia.
Bulgaria Bulgaria became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell under communist rule between 1946 and 1990. In recent decades, the country moved toward political democracy and a market economy; it joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achieved independence from France in 1960. Leadership struggles characterized the country’s early years. The current regime instituted multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Burkina Faso's high population density and limited natural resources result in poor economic prospects for the majority of its citizens.
Burma Burma was a province of British India until 1937 and then a self-governing colony until independence in 1948. Military governments have generally led the country since. Recent years have seen a series of political and economic reforms leading to a substantial opening of the long-isolated country.
Burundi The assassination of Burundi's first democratically elected president in 1993 triggered over 10 years of widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions. Hundreds of thousands of Burundians were killed or displaced. A 2003 internationally brokered agreement paved the way for a peace process.
Cambodia Cambodia became independent from French Indochina in 1953. At least 1.5 million Cambodians died under a communist Khmer Rouge regime that took power in 1975. A 10-year Vietnamese occupation that began in 1978 touched off a prolonged civil war. UN-sponsored elections in the early 1990s helped restore peace.
Canada Largely English speaking except for the French province of Quebec, Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the British crown. Economically and technologically, the nation developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across the world's longest unfortified border.
Cape Verde Discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century; the islands became a trading center for African slaves and later an important coaling and resupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Independent since 1975, Cape Verde has one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.
Cayman Islands The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries and were administered by Jamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory within the Federation of the West Indies. When the Federation dissolved in 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African Republic The French colony of Ubangi-Shari became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. Except for a decade-long period of civilian rule from 1993-2003, the country has mostly been run by military governments.
Chad Chad is one of the world’s poorest countries. Following independence from France in 1960, it endured 30 years of civil warfare, as well as invasions by Libya, before a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. Strongman Idriss DEBY remains in power, having successfully quashed several rebellions.
Chile Chile threw off Spanish rule in the early 19th century. A three-year experiment in Marxist government was overthrown in 1973. Sound economic policies since the 1980s have contributed to steady growth, have reduced poverty, and have helped secure the country’s commitment to democratic and representative government.
China Centuries of successive Chinese dynasties gave way to a republic in 1912. Communism, imposed after World War II, cost the lives of tens of millions of people. Since the 1980s, market-oriented economic development has improved living standards for much of the population, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas Island Named for the day of its discovery in 1643, the island was settled by the UK in 1888 following the discovery of phosphate deposits. After World War II, Christmas Island came under the authority of Singapore and in 1958 was transferred to Australia. Almost two-thirds of the island is now a national park.
Clipperton Island This isolated atoll was named for John CLIPPERTON, a pirate rumored to have made it his hideout early in the 18th century. Annexed by France in 1855 and claimed by the US, it was seized by Mexico in 1897. Arbitration ultimately awarded the island to France in 1931, which took possession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands Discovered in 1609, the islands remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in 1857, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australia in 1955. From the 1820s to the 1970s the islands produced copra from local coconuts. North Keeling Island became a national park in 1995.
Colombia Colombia was a successor country following the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830. Despite decades of internal conflict and drug-related security challenges, Colombia maintains relatively strong democratic institutions characterized by peaceful, transparent elections and the protection of civil liberties.
Comoros The three-island nation of Comoros has endured more than 20 coups or attempted coups since gaining independence from France in 1975. Anjouan island’s attempt at seceding resulted in seizure of the island by African Union and Comoran soldiers in March 2008. The island's inhabitants generally welcomed the move.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the then-Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but much of its history since has been marred by political, ethnic, and social instability. The country changed its name to Zaire in 1971 and to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 1997.
Congo, Republic of the Following independence from France in 1960, the Republic of the Congo endured decades of Marxist rule before a democratic government took office in 1992. A brief civil war in 1997 restored a former Marxist president who continues to rule. The country is one of Africa’s largest petroleum producers.
Cook Islands Named after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, the islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900, administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965, residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand.
Coral Sea Islands Covering more than three-quarters of a million sq km of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were declared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabited except for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets. Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy many other islands and reefs.
Costa Rica Costa Rica proclaimed its independence from the United Provinces of Central America in 1838. Since the late 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have marred the country's democratic development. Its standard of living is relatively high and land ownership is widespread.
Cote d'Ivoire Cote d'Ivoire became a prosperous West African state following independence from France in 1960. A military coup in 1999 eventually led to two civil wars (2002-2004 and 2011). Several thousand UN peacekeepers and hundreds of French troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to support a democratic transition process.
Croatia Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes seceded from the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 and formed a kingdom known after 1929 as Yugoslavia. Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, but it took four years of fighting to clear occupying Serb armies. The country joined NATO in 2009 and the EU in 2013.
Cuba Cuba, with US intervention, overthrew Spanish rule in 1898 during the Spanish-American War, and gained independence from the US in 1902. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959; with Soviet support, Cuba exported its communist revolution to Latin America and Africa during the 1960s-1980s. The country has faced economic difficulties since 1990 and the withdrawal of Soviet subsidies.
Curacao The Dutch seized the island in 1634 and made it the center of the Caribbean slave trade. The abolition of slavery in 1863 hurt the economy, but prosperity returned in the 20th century with the construction of oil refineries. From 1954, Curacao was part of the Netherlands Antilles; in 2010, it became self-governing within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Cyprus Cyprus became independent of the UK in 1960 despite tensions between a Greek Cypriot majority and a Turkish Cypriot minority. In 1974, a Greek Government-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met by military intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than a third of the island. Discussions aimed at reuniting the divided island continue. Cyprus entered the EU in 2004.
Czech Republic In 1918, Czechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged to form Czechoslovakia. After WWII, the country fell under Soviet influence. A 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion ended efforts to liberalize communist rule, but a peaceful 1989 "Velvet Revolution" swept communists from power. In 1993, the country split into its two parts. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
Denmark Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation that is participating in the general political and economic integration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now the EU) in 1973.
Dhekelia Following Cyprus’ independence in 1960, the UK retained full sovereignty over two areas of the island, Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger and easternmost of these is the Dhekelia Sovereign Base Area.
Djibouti The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became Djibouti in 1977. The country is strategically located at the intersection of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. The government maintains strong ties with the US and France, which has a significant military presence in the country.
Dominica Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be colonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763, which made the island a colony in 1805. Independence came in 1978.
Dominican Republic Spain and France colonized and divided the island of Hispaniola between them. The western third became Haiti, the remainder attained independence from Haiti and took the name Dominican Republic in 1844. Joaquin BALAGUER’s 30-year grip on power finally ended in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have been held.
Ecuador Ecuador was a successor country following the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830. Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. Political instability characterizes much of Ecuador’s recent history. Its 2008 constitution was the 20th since gaining independence.
Egypt A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for three millennia. Subsequently, the country was ruled by the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and the UK. Independence came in 1952. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society.
El Salvador El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war, which cost about 75,000 lives, ended in 1992 when the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for military and political reforms.
Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea gained independence from Spain in 1968. Composed of a mainland portion plus five inhabited islands, the country is one of the smallest in Africa. Its president has ruled since 1979 when he seized power in a coup. Despite the country's economic windfall from oil production, improvements in the population's living standards have been slow to develop.
Eritrea Eritrea won its independence from Ethiopia in 1993. ISAIAS Afworki has been Eritrea's only president since independence; his rule, particularly since 2001, has been highly autocratic and repressive. Differences with Ethiopia following a border war (1998-2000) remain unresolved.
Estonia After centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russian rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated into the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It joined NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Ethiopia Unique among African countries, Ethiopia maintained its freedom from colonial rule with the exception of a short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-41. In 1974, a military junta, the Derg, established a socialist state; the regime was finally toppled in 1991. Differences with Eritrea following a border war (1998-2000) remain unresolved.
European Union What is now the European Union (EU) began in 1952 as the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) with six members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Envisioning an "ever closer union," subsequent treaties among the countries sought to eliminate trade barriers and form a common market. In 1973, the first enlargement of what was then called the European Community (EC) took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. Greece, Spain, and Portugal joined in the 1980s and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in the 1990s. The countries adopted the EU name in 1993 and a new common currency, the euro, in 1999. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia in 2013, setting current membership at 28.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) Britain and Argentina dispute ownership of the islands. The UK asserted its claim by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina invaded the islands in 1982, but a British task force took back the islands in 10 weeks. A 2013 referendum resulted in 99.8% of the population voting to remain a part of the UK.
Faroe Islands Vikings settled the islands in the 9th century. The islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th century. The Faroese obtained autonomy over most of their internal affairs in 1948, but Denmark is responsible for justice, defense, and foreign affairs. The Faroe Islands are not part of the EU.
Fiji Fiji became independent in 1970 after nearly a century as a British colony. The island’s recent history has been marred by friction between native Melanesians and the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century).
Finland Finland was long part of Sweden (12th-19th centuries) and then part of Russia after 1809. It won its independence in 1917. During World War II, Finland successfully resisted invasions by the USSR; it subsequently transformed itself into a modern industrial economy and joined the EU in 1995.
France France is a leader among European nations; it plays an influential global role as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, NATO, the EU, and other multilateral organizations. In recent decades, its reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of Europe. In the early 21st century, five French overseas entities - French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion - became French regions and were made part of France proper.
French Polynesia The French annexed various Polynesian island groups during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The tests were halted in January 1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has been considerably expanded.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands The French Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF) are divided into five administrative districts, two of which are archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen; the third is a district composed of two volcanic islands, Ile Saint-Paul and Ile Amsterdam; the fourth, Iles Eparses, consists of five scattered tropical islands around Madagascar. None of these islands have permanent inhabitants; they are visited only by scientists, fishermen, and military personnel. The fifth district is the Antarctic portion "Adelie Land," a thin slice of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in 1840.
Gabon Gabon became independent from France in 1960. Omar BONGO Ondimba dominated the country's politics for four decades (1967-2009) until his death. He was succeeded as president by his son. Despite constrained political conditions, Gabon's small population, abundant natural resources, and significant foreign support have helped make it one of the more prosperous and stable African countries.
Gambia, The The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965. Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991, the two nations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensions have flared up intermittently since then.
Gaza Strip Gaza became part of British Palestine after WWI. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Egypt administered the newly formed Gaza Strip; it was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War with Egypt in 1967. In late 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew all of its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip, but it continues to control maritime, airspace, and other access. The Islamic Resistance Movement, HAMAS, currently dominates in the Gaza Strip.
Georgia Georgia has had a turbulent history dominated at times by the Persians, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and Ottomans; it was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Independent for three years (1918-1921) after the Russian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR in 1921. It regained its independence when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991.
Germany As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation, Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. A devastated Germany was occupied after WWII. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, while the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has expended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wages up to Western standards.
Ghana Ghana in 1957 became the first sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. It endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS took power in 1981 and banned political parties. A new constitution in 1992 restored multiparty politics and regular elections have been held since.
Gibraltar Strategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly ceded to Great Britain by Spain in 1713 and became a British colony in 1830. In 1967 and 2002 referenda, Gibraltarians voted to remain a British dependency and against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since 2004, Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar have held tripartite talks to cooperatively resolve problems that affect the local population. The UK retains responsibility for defense and foreign relations.
Greece Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830 and became a kingdom. In 1974, a referendum created a parliamentary republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC (now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 2001. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default on its euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU.
Greenland Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from Iceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and Greenland became part of Denmark in 1953. It joined the European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973 but withdrew in 1985. Greenland attained greater autonomy through laws that went into effect in 1980 and 2009. Denmark, however, continues to control Greenland's foreign affairs, security, and financial policy.
Grenada The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugar estates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain took the island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In 1967, Britain granted Grenada autonomy; full independence came in 1974. A Marxist military coup in 1983 was quickly quashed. Free elections were reinstituted the following year and have continued since.
Guam Spain ceded Guam to the US in 1898. Captured by the Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The military installation on the island is one of the most strategically important US bases in the Pacific.
Guatemala The Maya civilization flourished in Guatemala during the first millennium A.D. After almost three centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independence in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, the country experienced a variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-year guerrilla war that finally ended in 1996.
Guernsey Guernsey and the other Channel Islands are the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both France and England. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey, a British crown dependency, is not part of the UK or of the EU. However, the UK Government is responsible for its defense and international representation.
Guinea Guinea has had a history of authoritarian or military rule since gaining its independence from France in 1958. In 2010, Alpha CONDE was elected president in the country's first free and fair elections since independence. In 2012, he announced a cabinet reshuffle that removed three members of the military from their positions, making the current administration Guinea's first all-civilian government.
Guinea-Bissau Since independence from Portugal in 1974, Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military upheaval. Following a coup in 2012, a transitional civilian government was installed. General elections are scheduled for November 2013.
Guyana Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured servants from India to work the sugar plantations. The resulting ethnocultural divide has led to turbulent politics. Since its independence from the UK in 1966, Guyana has been ruled mostly by socialist-oriented governments.
Haiti In 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island of Hispaniola, which later became Haiti. The French sugar-based colony became one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean but only through the heavy importation of African slaves. A slave revolt brought independence in 1804, but the country has experienced political instability for most of its history since. A massive magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti in January 2010 killing over 300,000 people.
Heard Island and McDonald Islands The United Kingdom transferred these uninhabited, barren, sub-Antarctic islands to Australia in 1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the islands have been designated as a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City) Popes in their secular role ruled portions of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the newly united Kingdom of Italy. Disputes between a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by three Lateran Treaties, which established an independent state of Vatican City as the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. About 1.2 billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.
Honduras Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came to power in 1982. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998, which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion in damage. Since then, the economy has slowly rebounded.
Hong Kong Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded by China the following year. An agreement signed by China and the UK in 1984 allowed Hong Kong to revert to China in 1997 under a formula whereby China's socialist economic system would not be imposed on Hong Kong , and the region would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
Howland Island Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British companies mined for guano until about 1890. The US Department of the Interior has administered the island as a National Wildlife Refuge since 1974.
Hungary Hungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for many centuries served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion in Europe. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under communist rule following World War II. Hungary held its first multiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
Iceland Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish) immigrants settled the island during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland was subsequently ruled by Denmark, which granted limited home rule in 1874 and complete independence in 1944. The island’s fishing-dependent economy diversified greatly after the country joined the European Economic Area in 1994.
India By the 19th century, Britain had become the dominant political power on the Indian subcontinent. British withdrawal in 1947 led to partition into two separate states - India and Pakistan. The neighboring nations have fought three wars since independence. India's nuclear weapons tests in 1998 emboldened Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year. Despite pressing problems, economic reforms and growth since the 1990s have driven India's emergence as a regional and global power.
Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb (Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia).
Indonesia After almost 350 years of Dutch rule, Indonesia attained its independence in 1949. Authoritarian rule under Presidents SOEKARNO (1949-67) and SUHARTO (1967-98) ended in 1999 with free and fair legislative elections. Indonesia is now the world's third most populous democracy and the world's largest Muslim-majority nation.
Iran Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in 1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown by conservative clerical forces that established a theocratic system of government. Iran remains subject to US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and export controls because of its continued involvement in terrorism and its nuclear weapons ambitions.
Iraq Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq attained its independence in 1932 but was mostly ruled by a series of strongmen until 2003; the last was SADDAM Husayn. In 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces in 1991. Iraqi flaunting of UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years led to a US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forces remained in Iraq until 2011, stabilizing the country and helping the Iraqis install a representative government.
Ireland Celtic tribes arrived on the island in the 4th century B.C. English invasions began about A.D. 1160 and some 760 years of Anglo-Irish struggle followed. Independence from Britain finally came in 1921 for 26 southern counties; six northern (Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. Ireland joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and Northern Ireland and a peace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implemented despite some difficulties.
Isle of Man Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the 13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the British crown in 1765. Isle of Man is a British crown dependency but is not part of the UK or of the EU. However, the UK Government remains constitutionally responsible for its defense and international representation.
Israel After World War II, the British withdrew from Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently, the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending the deep tensions between the two sides. Disputes with Egypt and Jordan were resolved in 1979 and 1994 respectively. Israel in 2005 unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, but it continues to occupy the West Bank and Golan Heights.
Italy The various regional states of the Italian peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, united into a nation-state in 1861. In the early 1920s Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic established in 1946 brought about an economic revival. Italy is a charter member of NATO and the European Community (EC).
Jamaica England seized the island from the Spanish in 1655 and established sugar, cocoa, and coffee plantations. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica gained its independence from Britain in 1962. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty challenge today’s government. Nonetheless, many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute substantially to the economy.
Jan Mayen This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after a Dutch whaling captain who discovered it in 1614. Visited only occasionally by seal hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Beerenberg volcano, the northernmost active volcano on earth, resumed activity in 1970 and the most recent eruption occurred in 1985.
Japan Japan ended centuries of isolation in 1854 by opening its ports and intensively modernizing and industrializing. It soon became a regional power occupying Formosa (Taiwan) (1895), Korea (1910), and Manchuria (1931), and invading China (1937). Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered to become an economic power and an ally of the US. Following three decades of unprecedented growth, Japan's economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s, but the country remains a major economic power.
Jarvis Island Discovered by the British in 1821, the uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858 and mined for guano until 1879 when it was abandoned. The UK annexed the island in 1889 but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935; it is currently a National Wildlife Refuge administered by the US Department of the Interior.
Jersey Jersey and the other Channel Islands are the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both France and England. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey, a British crown dependency, is not part of the UK or of the EU. However, the UK Government is constitutionally responsible for its defense and international representation.
Johnston Atoll The US annexed the atoll in 1858 and mined guano deposits there until the late 1880s. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934 and the US Air Force in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Cleanup and closure of the weapons facility ended in 2005.
Jordan Jordan gained its independence from Britain in 1946. The country's pragmatic ruler, King HUSSEIN (1953-99), relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank in 1988, and in 1994 he signed a peace treaty with Israel. His son, King ABDALLAH II, has implemented modest political and economic reforms.
Kazakhstan Kazakh lands were conquered by Russia in the 18th century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet republic in 1936. During the 1950s and 1960s, Soviet citizens were encouraged to settle and cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures. This immigration (mostly Russians) skewed the ethnic mixture. Since independence in 1991, large-scale repatriation has allowed Kazakhs to become the titular majority again.
Kenya Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA led Kenya from independence (from Britain) in 1963 until his death in 1978, but decades of political turbulence followed. In 2010, Kenyans overwhelmingly adopted a new constitution, which introduced checks and balances to executive power and significant devolution of power and resources to 47 newly created counties.
Kingman Reef The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.
Kiribati The Gilbert Islands became a British colony in 1915. Occupied by the Japanese in the Pacific War in 1941, they were liberated by US troops in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted independence by the UK in 1979 under the new name of Kiribati. In 1979, the US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix and Line Island groups enabling them to be incorporated into Kiribati.
Korea, North Following World War II, North Korea came under Soviet-sponsored communist control. After failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea in the south by force, North Korea adopted a policy of diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against outside influence. North Korea's history of regional military provocations; proliferation of military-related items; long-range missile development; WMD programs, including tests of nuclear devices in 2006, 2009, and 2013; and massive conventional armed forces are of major concern to the international community.
Korea, South An independent kingdom for much of its long history, Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 and formally annexed in 1910. Korea regained its independence following Japan's surrender to the US in 1945. After successfully fending off a communist-inspired invasion by North Korea in the Korean War (1950-53), South Korea achieved rapid economic growth and today is a fully functioning modern democracy.
Kosovo Kosovo was the medieval center of a Serbian Empire. Serbian defeat in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottoman rule during which large numbers of Albanians moved to Kosovo and became the dominant ethnic group. Serbia reacquired Kosovo in 1912; after World War II, Kosovo became an autonomous province of Serbia within Yugoslavia. Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s, leading to riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. The UN placed Kosovo under a transitional administration in 1999. On 17 February 2008, Kosovo declared its independence – a move rejected by Serbia, but recognized by over 100 countries.
Kuwait Kuwait acquired its independence from the UK in 1961. The country was overrun by Iraq in August 1990, but liberated by a US-led, UN coalition in February 1991. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure damaged during the war. The AL-SABAH family has ruled since returning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislature that in recent years has become increasingly assertive.
Kyrgyzstan Russia annexed most of Kyrgyzstan in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the Tsarist Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz populace was killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achieved independence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Present-day concerns include: the trajectory of democratization, endemic corruption, poor interethnic relations, and terrorism.
Laos Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan Xang. Laos became part of French Indochina in the late 19th century. In 1975, the communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime. A gradual, limited return to private enterprise and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1988.
Latvia Over the past millennium, the eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the Latvian people came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I, but it was annexed by the USSR. Latvia reestablished its independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Lebanon The French demarcated the region of Lebanon from the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria in 1920 and granted this area independence in 1943. Since then the country has experienced periods of political turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on its position as a regional center for finance and trade.
Lesotho Basutoland became Lesotho upon independence from the UK in 1966. Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody intervention by South African and Batswana military forces. Constitutional reforms in the late 1990s restored relative political stability.
Liberia Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to establish a republic. A military coup in 1980 ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule, which was followed by a prolonged civil war. A 2003 peace agreement finally ended the war and democratic elections were held in 2005. UN troops remain in Liberia to help maintain stability.
Libya Libyan independence from UN oversight came in 1951. A 1969 military coup ushered in a 42-year rule of Col. Muammar al-QADHAFI during which he initially used oil revenues to promote subversive and terrorist activities. UN sanctions begun in 1992 prompted Libyan acceptance of responsibility for bombings and agreement to claimant compensation in 2003. A 2011 civil war toppled the QADHAFI regime and in 2012 a new parliament was set up.
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein became independent of the German Confederation in 1866. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic growth.
Lithuania Lithuania gained its independence from Russia following World War I but was annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence. The last Russian troops withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy for integration into Western European institutions; it joined NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Luxembourg Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815 and an independent state in 1867. Overrun by Germany in both world wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the EEC (later the EU).
Macau Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the first European settlement in the Far East. China and Portugal agreed in 1987 that Macau would become a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China in 1999, that China would not impose its political or economic system on Macau, and that Macau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy for the next 50 years.
Macedonia Macedonia gained its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. Greece objected to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenic name and delayed international recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of "the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, the two countries normalized relations, but the issue of the name remains unresolved. Since 2004, the US and over 130 other nations have recognized Macedonia by its constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia.
Madagascar Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a French colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During 1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held ending 17 years of single-party rule. Political gridlock following a virtual coup d’etat in 2009 has yet to be resolved.
Malawi The British protectorate of Nyasaland became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades of one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution that came into full effect the following year. Population growth, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and the spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi.
Malaysia In 1948, most British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was formed in 1963 when Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of Borneo joined the Federation. The country has generally been successful in diversifying its economy from dependence on exports of raw materials to the development of manufacturing, services, and tourism.
Maldives A sultanate since the 12th century, the Maldives became a British protectorate in 1887. It became a republic in 1968, three years after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominated the islands' political scene for decades until defeated in a 2008 election under a new constitution.
Mali The Mali Federation, formed after independence from France in 1960, became known as Mali when Senegal withdrew after a few months. A military coup in 1991 ousted a dictatorship and ushered in democratic rule. Islamic militants set up strongholds in northern Mali in 2012 forcing hundreds of thousands to flee to southern Mali and neighboring countries. A military intervention that began in January 2013 retook most of the north within a month.
Malta Great Britain formally acquired Malta in 1814. The island staunchly supported the UK through both world wars and remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Since about the mid-1980s, the island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU member in May 2004.
Marshall Islands After almost four decades under US administration as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and 1962.
Mauritania Independent from France in 1960, the country continues to experience ethnic tensions among its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and white and black Moor (Arab-Berber) communities, and is having to confront a growing terrorism threat by al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM).
Mauritius The British captured Mauritius from the French in 1810. The island became a strategically important British naval base and later an air station. Independence from the UK came in 1968. A stable democracy with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one of Africa's highest per capita incomes.
Mexico The site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico was conquered by Spain in the early 16th century and it remained a colony for three centuries. The global financial crisis hit hard in 2009, but growth rebounded in 2010. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and drug-related violence and gangs.
Micronesia, Federated States of The Federated States of Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a constitution in 1979. Independence came in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004. Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.
Midway Islands The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve as a naval station until 1993.
Moldova Part of Romania during the interwar period, Moldova was incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II. Although the country has been independent from the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory east of the Nistru River supporting a Transnistrian separatist region composed of a Slavic majority population (mostly Ukrainians and Russians), but with a sizeable ethnic Moldovan minority.
Monaco The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present day Monaco in 1215. The current ruling GRIMALDI family secured its holding there in 1419. A railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino in the late 19th century spurred economic development. Since then, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation center.
Mongolia The Mongols established a huge Eurasian empire in the 13th century through conquest. The empire split into several powerful Mongol states that broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelands and in the late 17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing and a communist regime was installed in 1924. In a peaceful democratic revolution in 1990, the communist party yielded its monopoly on power.
Montenegro Montenegro fell under Ottoman rule in 1496 but was able to maintain a level of autonomy. From the 16th to 19th centuries, it was a theocracy ruled by bishop princes; in 1852, it became a secular principality. After World War I, Montenegro became part of Yugoslavia. When the latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro first federated with Serbia, but then in 2006 voted for complete independence.
Montserrat English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled this Caribbean island in 1632; Montserrat became a British possession in 1783. Much of the island was devastated and two-thirds of the population fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano that began in 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity since, with the last eruption occurring in 2003.
Morocco Since the 8th century, a series of Moroccan Muslim dynasties have ruled in Morocco. In 1912, France imposed a protectorate over the country. Independence was finally won in 1956. Morocco exercises de facto administrative control over Western Sahara, but the status of the territory remains unresolved.
Mozambique Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration, economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil war hindered the country's development until the mid 1990s. The ruling party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market economy.
Namibia South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa during World War I and annexed the territory after World War II. In 1966 the Marxist South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group launched a war of independence for the area that became Namibia. Independence finally came in 1990 and Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since.
Nauru Germany annexed the Pacific island in 1888. A German-British consortium mined the island's phosphate deposits early in the 20th century. Australian forces occupied Nauru in World War I; it subsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After World War II, Nauru became a UN trust territory. It achieved independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa Island This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857 for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual scientific expeditions have continued.
Nepal In 1951, the Nepali monarch ended the century-old system of rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency led by Maoist extremists broke out in 1996 and a 10-year civil war ensued. By 2008 the monarchy had been abolished and Nepal declared a republic. Short-lived coalition governments have led the country since.
Netherlands The Dutch United Provinces declared their independence from Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leading seafaring and commercial power. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I, but suffered occupation by Germany in World War II. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EEC (now the EU).
New Caledonia The island became a French possession in 1853; it served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864. Agitation for independence during the 1980s-1990s ended in the 1998 Noumea Accord, which transfers increasing governing responsibility from France to New Caledonia and commits France to conduct a referendum between 2014 and 2018 to decide whether New Caledonia should become independent.
New Zealand The British began settling New Zealand in 1840. A series of land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native Maori peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both world wars. In recent years, the government has sought to address longstanding Maori grievances.
Nicaragua Independence from Spain came in 1821. A short-lived civil war brought Marxist Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista contra guerrillas during the 1980s. Former Sandinista Daniel ORTEGA Saavedra became president in 2006 and has since weakened democratic institutions.
Niger Niger, which became independent from France in 1960, is one of the poorest countries in the world with minimal government services and insufficient funds to develop its resource base. The largely agrarian and subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extended droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa.
Nigeria Africa’s most populous country attained independence from Britain in 1960. Adoption of a new constitution in 1999 - after 16 years of military control - completed a peaceful transition to civilian rule. The government continues to face the daunting tasks of reforming its petroleum-based economy, institutionalizing democracy, and managing longstanding ethnic and religious tensions.
Niue Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the Cook Islands, has caused it to be separately administered by New Zealand. The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200 in 1966 to an estimated 1,229 in 2013) with substantial emigration to New Zealand 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk Island Two British attempts at establishing the island as a penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In 1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana Islands Under US administration as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to forge closer links with the US. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political union with the US was approved in 1975 and came into force in 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in 1978.
Norway Norway was part of Denmark (1397-1814) and then Sweden (1814-1905). The country proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of World War II, but was nonetheless occupied by Nazi Germany (1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
Oman Close ties with Britain - the earliest treaty dates to 1798 - allowed the sultans of Muscat and Oman to maintain their independence. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al-Said overthrew his father, and he has since ruled as sultan. His extensive modernization program has opened the country to the outside world while preserving ties with the UK.
Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and Torres Straits.
Pakistan Following the Mughal Empire (16th and 17th centuries), the British came to dominate the region in the 18th century. The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim state of Pakistan and largely Hindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India and Pakistan have fought three wars. A 1971 war resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate state of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998.
Palau After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the Caroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join the Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association with the US was approved in 1986 but not ratified until 1993. It entered into force the following year when the islands gained independence.
Palmyra Atoll The US included Palmyra Atoll among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959, however, did not include Palmyra Atoll, which is now part privately owned and part US-Government-owned and administered as a nature preserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12-nautical-mile US territorial seas were designated a National Wildlife Refuge in 2001.
Panama Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and signed a treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure. The Panama Canal was built by the US between 1904 and 1914. The entire Canal and surrounding area were transferred to Panama in 1999. In 2006, Panamanians approved a plan (est. cost $5.3 billion) to expand the Canal.
Papua New Guinea The eastern half of the island of New Guinea - second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north) and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World War I and continued to administer the combined areas until independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville ended in 1997.
Paracel Islands The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932, French Indochina annexed the islands; Vietnam succeeded to the claim. China occupied all of the Paracel Islands when its troops seized a South Vietnamese garrison in 1974 and has since built a military installation on Woody Island. The islands also are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
Paraguay Paraguay achieved independence from Spain in 1811. In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) - against Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay lost two-thirds of its adult males and much of its territory. The country stagnated economically for the next half century. In the Chaco War of 1932-35 with Bolivia, Paraguay gained a large part of the Chaco lowland region. A 35-year military dictatorship ended in 1989 and the country has held relatively free and regular presidential elections since.
Peru Ancient Peru was the seat of several Andean civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was captured by Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence came in 1821. After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic leadership in 1980. Sound, market-oriented policies of several administrations since then have resulted in significant economic progress.
Philippines The Spanish colonized the Philippines during the 16th century, but ceded them to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. The islands fell to Japan during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought together during 1944-45 to regain control. In 1946 the Philippines became independent. The Philippines faces increased tension with China over disputed claims in the South China Sea.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to less than 50 today.
Poland Poland's history begins in the middle of the 10th century. During the 18th century, internal disorders allowed the nation to be partitioned. Poland regained its independence in 1918, but was overrun Germany and the USSR in World War II and subsequently suffered the imposition of communist rule. Free elections in 1989 and 1990 brought the communist era to a close. In subsequent years the country transformed its economy into one of the most robust in Central Europe. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
Portugal A global maritime power during the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars, and the loss of its wealthiest colony of Brazil in 1822. A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; mostly repressive governments ran the country until 1974 when a left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto Rico In 1898, after 400 years of Spanish colonial rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and African slave labor introduced, the island of Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship in 1917 and self rule in 1952. Plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998 retained the status quo.
Qatar Qatar transformed itself from a poor British protectorate (1916-71) noted mainly for pearling into an independent state with significant petroleum reserves. The current amir overthrew his spendthrift father in a bloodless coup in 1995 and undertook economic and social reforms. Oil and natural gas revenues have enabled Qatar to attain one of the highest per capita incomes in the world.
Romania The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia united in 1862 to become Romania; recognition of independence came in 1878. Transylvania was acquired after World War I. Romania was overrun by the USSR in 1944 and a communist regime set up in 1947. The decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU was overthrown in 1989. Former communists dominated the government until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Russia From the rise of Moscow in the 14th century through the 19th century, Russia continued to gradually conquer and absorb lands in Europe and Asia. Defeats in World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and the formation of the communist USSR. After almost seven decades, the Soviet Union in 1991 splintered into Russia and 14 other independent republics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state.
Rwanda Conflict between the two major ethnic groups, the Hutus and the Tutsis, marred independence from Belgium in 1962. A civil war that began in 1990 escalated in 1994 into a state-orchestrated genocide, in which roughly three-quarters of the minority Tutsi population was killed. A present-day government of national unity has repatriated of millions of refugees and has sought to rout remaining Hutu extremists.
Saint Barthelemy Saint Barthelemy was first settled by the French in 1648; in 1784, the French sold the island to Sweden, who made it a free port. France repurchased the island in 1877 allowing it to retain its free port status and to be placed under the administration of Guadeloupe. In 2003 the populace of the island voted to secede from Guadeloupe, and in 2007 the island became a French overseas collectivity.
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha Saint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consisting of Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group of Tristan da Cunha.
Saint Kitts and Nevis The British began settling the islands in 1623. In 1967, the island territory of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla became an associated state of the UK with full internal autonomy. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in 1971. The remaining islands achieved independence in 1983 as Saint Kitts and Nevis, but Nevis continues efforts to separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint Lucia The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries, was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries, but was finally ceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on its plantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island, dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government was granted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint Martin The Spanish relinquished Saint Martin to the French and Dutch, who divided it between themselves in 1648. The cultivation of sugar cane brought African slavery to the island from the late 18th century until 1848. The island became a free port in 1939; the tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the 1970s and 1980s. In 2007, the northern portion of the island became a French overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon First settled by the French in the early 17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of France's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Resistance by native Caribs prevented colonization on Saint Vincent until 1719. Disputed between France and the UK for most of the 18th century, the island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Autonomy came in 1969 and independence in 1979.
Samoa New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962, when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western" from its name in 1997.
San Marino The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See and Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldest republic, founded according to tradition by a Christian stonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy aligns with the EU, although it is not a member. Social and political trends in the republic track closely with those of its larger neighbor, Italy.
Sao Tome and Principe Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late 15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with African plantation slave labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free elections in 1991.
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The modern Saudi state, a monarchy under the House of Saud, was founded in 1932 after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian Peninsula. The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and holds about 17% of the world's proven oil reserves. The government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification.
Senegal The former French colony of Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982, but the union dissolved in 1989. Senegal is one of the most stable democracies in Africa and has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping and regional mediation.
Serbia The union of various south Slav peoples into a Yugoslavia lasted until 1991 when the country broke up along ethnic lines. Serbia led various military campaigns in subsequent years to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia," but these actions proved unsuccessful. A 1998 ethnic Albanian insurgency in the Serbian region of Kosovo provoked a severe Serbian response of massacres and massive expulsions, NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, and to the stationing of a NATO-led stabilization force in Kosovo. In 2003, Yugoslavia became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics. In 2006, Montenegro seceded and became independent. In 2008, Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia - an action Serbia refuses to recognize.
Seychelles A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter. Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close with a new constitution and free elections in 1993.
Sierra Leone Independence from the UK came in 1961. A civil war (1991-2002) resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about a third of the populace). UN peacekeepers left in 2005, and the military is maintaining the country's stability. Current government priorities include furthering development, creating jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
Singapore Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819. It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years later and became independent. Singapore has since become one of the world's most prosperous countries with strong international trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the leading nations of Western Europe.
Sint Maarten The Spanish relinquished Saint Martin to the French and Dutch, who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. Plantations dramatically expanded African slavery on the island in the 18th and 19th centuries. The island became a free port in 1939; tourism expanded beginning in the 1950s. In 2010, the southern Dutch portion became the independent nation of Sint Maarten within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Slovakia In 1918, Czechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged to form Czechoslovakia. After WWII, the country fell under Soviet influence. A 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion ended efforts to liberalize communist rule, but a peaceful 1989 "Velvet Revolution" swept communists from power. In 1993, the country split into its two parts. Slovakia joined both NATO and the EU in 2004.
Slovenia The Slovenes became part of multi-national Yugoslavia after World War I. Dissatisfied with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia in 1991 after a short 10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in 2004.
Solomon Islands The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World War II occurred on this archipelago. Independence came in 1978. Ethnic violence, government malfeasance, and endemic crime in the early 2000s undermined stability and civil society. In 2003, an Australian-led multinational force disarmed ethnic militias and restored peace.
Somalia British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland merged in 1960 to form Somalia. Following the collapse of an authoritarian socialist regime in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. Repeated efforts over two decades finally produced a viable unity government in 2012 with the election of a new parliament and president.
South Africa The Dutch and British sparred over parts of South Africa in the 19th century. Following the Boer War (1899-1902), the British and the Afrikaners (Dutch) ruled together beginning in 1910 under the Union of South Africa. In 1948 a policy of apartheid was introduced, which favored the white minority at the expense of the black majority. Internal protests and insurgency, as well as boycotts by some Western nations and institutions, led to the regime's eventual willingness to transition to majority rule. The first multi-racial elections in 1994 brought an end to apartheid.
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands The islands, which have large bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east of the Falkland Islands and have been under British administration since 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentina occupied them.
South Sudan After Sudan gained its independence in 1956, it reneged on its promises to fully include southerners in the political process. Two prolonged periods of conflict ensued (1955-1972 and 1983-2005) in which perhaps 2.5 million people died - mostly civilians - due to starvation and drought. Peace talks led to a referendum in January 2011 that was 98% in favor of secession. Independence came on 9 July 2011.
Southern Ocean In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit the waters south of 60 degrees south latitude as a fifth world ocean - the Southern Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean is the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean).
Spain Spain oversaw a world empire in the 16th and 17th centuries but ultimately fell behind other European powers. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). Rapid modernization in the late 20th century (Spain joined the EU in 1986) gave Spain a dynamic and rapidly growing economy, but a severe economic recession that began in 2008 has forced the implementation of tough austerity measures.
Spratly Islands The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed by Malaysia and the Philippines.
Sri Lanka The island was ceded to Britain in 1796; it became independent as Ceylon in 1948 and its name was changed to Sri Lanka in 1972. In 1983, tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatists erupted into a decades-long war that was not fully ended until 2009. Since the conclusion of the conflict, the government has enacted an ambitious program of economic development projects.
Sudan Islamic-oriented military governments have dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956. Sudan experienced two prolonged civil wars (1955-72 and 1983-2005) rooted in northern economic, political, and social domination of largely non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. Peace talks (2002-04) followed by a referendum on independence led to South Sudan’s secession in 2011. Since then, Sudan has been combating rebels in other parts of the country.
Suriname Suriname became a Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of African slavery in 1863, workers were brought in from India and Java expanding the country’s ethnic mix. Independence from the Netherlands came in 1975. An alternating succession of military and civilian governments have ruled since.
Svalbard First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and 18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five years later it officially took over the territory.
Swaziland Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in 1968. A constitution came into effect in 2006, but the legal status of political parties remains unclear.
Sweden A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not participated in any war for almost two centuries. An armed neutrality was preserved in both world wars. Sweden's economic formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare elements has managed to survive recent global economic vagaries. Sweden joined the EU in 1995.
Switzerland The Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as a defensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, other localities joined the original three. The Confederation secured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Switzerland's sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the major European powers, and the country was not involved in either of the two world wars.
Syria Syria won its independence from France in 1946, but the new country lacked political stability and experienced a series of military coups during its first decades. In 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. He was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-ASAD in 2000. Antigovernment protests that broke out in 2011 have escalated into an all out civil war.
Taiwan Following the communist victory on the Chinese mainland in 1949, 2 million Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the 1947 constitution drawn up for all of China. In recent decades the island has become one of East Asia's economic "Tigers."
Tajikistan The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and 1870s; Tajikistan became independent of the Soviet Union in 1991 and experienced a civil war between regional factions from 1992-97. The country remains the poorest in the former Soviet sphere. Tajikistan joined NATO's Partnership for Peace in 2002, and became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2013.
Tanzania Shortly after achieving independence from Britain in the early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule ended in 1995 and regular elections have been held since.
Thailand A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US treaty ally in 1954.
Timor-Leste The Portuguese and Dutch colonized the island of Timor in the 16th and 17th centuries and divided it in an 1859 treaty. Portuguese East Timor declared its independence in 1975 but was occupied and incorporated into Indonesia. Following a 1999 UN-sponsored referendum, Indonesia relinquished control of East Timor; independence came in 2002.
Togo French Togoland became Togo in 1960. The country suffered through 40 years of military rule (1967-2007), but held its first relatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007. After years of political unrest and condemnation from international organizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally being re-welcomed into the international community.
Tokelau Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in 1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of the islands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of free association with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold for approval.
Tonga Tonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lost its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The Friendly Islands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in 1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and Tobago First colonized by the Spanish, the islands came under British control in the early 19th century. The islands' economy was originally sugar based, but later expanded to include cocoa and petroleum. Independence came in 1962. The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing. Tourism continues to grow.
Tunisia The French protectorate in Tunisia became independent in 1956. The country was ruled as a strict one-party state for over five decades, yet the government repressed Islamic fundamentalism and established women’s rights unmatched by other Arab nation. In 2011, a revolution ousted the country’s autocratic president; a fledgling interim government continues to lay the foundations for a true democracy.
Turkey Turkey was founded in 1923 from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. During subsequent decades, the country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. Turkish democracy has been fractured by periods of instability and intermittent military coups, but in each case civilian leadership was restored. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and NATO in 1952. It began accession talks with the EU in 2005.
Turkmenistan Annexed by Russia in the late 1800s, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic; it achieved independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves, which have yet to be fully exploited, have begun to transform the country.
Turks and Caicos Islands The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican colony until 1962, then a separate crown colony for three years. The governor of The Bahamas oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands remain a British overseas territory.
Tuvalu In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978.
Uganda Colonial British Uganda grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups, which prevented the establishment of a working political community after independence was achieved in 1962. Two brutal regimes (Idi AMIN, 1971-79 and Milton OBOTE, 1980-85) claimed hundreds of thousands of lives, but the rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986 has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda.
Ukraine For most of its history – beginning in the 10th century and through the 20th century - Ukraine was subject to foreign rule. Final independence came in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR. Democracy and prosperity, however, remain elusive as the legacy of state control and endemic corruption have stalled efforts at economic reform, privatization, and civil liberties.
United Arab Emirates The Persian Gulf’s Trucial States granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th century treaties. In the early 1970s, seven of these states merged to form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those of West European nations. Its high oil revenues and its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a vital role in the affairs of the region.
United Kingdom At its zenith in the 19th century, the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the United Kingdom's strength seriously depleted in two world wars. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. The UK is one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding member of NATO and the Commonwealth, and an active EU member.
United States The American colonies broke with Britain in 1776 and became the United States of America in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation state. Since the end of World War II, the economy has achieved relatively steady growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology.
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Consisting of Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, the Midway Islands, and Palmyra Atoll, these remote refuges are the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction. They sustain many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.
Uruguay Uruguay declared its independence from Brazil in 1825. The administrations of President Jose BATLLE in the early 20th century launched widespread political, social, and economic reforms that established a statist tradition. Despite an interruption of military rule (1973-85), Uruguay's political and labor conditions are among the freest on the continent.
Uzbekistan The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created in 1924 as part of the USSR. The subsequent intensive production of cotton and grain led to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies, which left the land degraded and the Aral Sea and certain rivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country is seeking to diversify its agricultural production while developing its mineral and petroleum reserves.
Vanuatu Multiple waves of migrants to the New Hebrides in the millennia preceding European exploration in the 18th century resulted in the archipelago’s current linguistic diversity. The British and French, who settled the New Hebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French Condominium, which administered the islands until independence in 1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.
Venezuela For most of the first half of the 20th century, Venezuela was ruled by generally benevolent military strongmen, who promoted the oil industry and allowed for some social reforms. Democratically elected governments have held sway since 1959. Hugo CHAVEZ, president from 1999 to 2013, sought to implement his "21st Century Socialism," which purported to alleviate social ills while at the same time attacking capitalist globalization and existing democratic institutions.
Vietnam Under the Geneva Accords of 1954, Vietnam was divided into a communist North and anti-communist South. US economic and military aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s, but after US armed forces withdrew in 1973, North Vietnamese forces overran the South in 1975 reuniting the country under communist rule. After a decade of stagnation, in 1986 Vietnamese authorities committed to economic liberalization and structural reforms needed to modernize the economy.
Virgin Islands During the 17th century, the archipelago was divided into English and Dutch territorial units. Sugarcane, produced by African slave labor, drove the islands' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1917, the US purchased the Danish portion, which had been in economic decline since the abolition of slavery in 1848.
Wake Island The US annexed Wake Island in 1899 and constructed an important air and naval base in 1940-41. In December 1941, the island was captured by the Japanese and held until the end of World War II. Subsequently, Wake became a stopover and refueling site for military and commercial aircraft transiting the Pacific. Since 1974, the island's airstrip has been used by the US military, as well as for emergency landings.
Wallis and Futuna The Futuna island group was discovered by the Dutch in 1616 and Wallis by the British in 1767, but it was the French who declared a protectorate over the islands in 1842 and took official control of them between 1886 and 1888. In 1959, the inhabitants voted for the islands to become a French overseas territory, and they officially assumed this status in 1961.
West Bank The West Bank became part of British Palestine after WWI. Jordan annexed the area in 1950. Israel captured the West Bank during the 1967 Six-Day War and continues to control it. Under a series of agreements signed between 1994 and 1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority security and civilian responsibility for many Palestinian-populated areas of the West Bank. Negotiations to determine a permanent status for the West Bank remain stalled.
Western Sahara Western Sahara is a disputed territory on the northwest coast of Africa. After Spain withdrew from its former colony of Spanish Sahara in 1976, Morocco annexed the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara and claimed the rest of the territory in 1979. A guerrilla war with the Polisario Front contesting Morocco's sovereignty and seeking independence ended in a 1991 cease-fire. A proposed UN referendum offering a choice for independence or integration into Morocco never took place.
World The planet's population continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820 to 2 billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1987, 6 billion in 1999, and 7 billion in 2012. For the 21st century, the continued exponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes (e.g., advances in medicine and agriculture) and fears (e.g., development of even more lethal weapons of war).
Yemen North Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. The British withdrew from their protectorate around the southern port of Aden in 1967; this became South Yemen. Three years later, the southern government adopted a Marxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands of Yemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades of hostility between the states. The two countries were formally unified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990.
Zambia The territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the [British] South Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over by the UK in 1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurred development and immigration. Its name was changed to Zambia upon independence in 1964.
Zimbabwe The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the [British] South Africa Company in 1923. The UK did not recognize a 1965 Rhodesian act of independence by a minority white government. UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprising finally led to free elections and independence (as Zimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE has been the country's only ruler and has dominated the country's political system since independence.
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